Hellen (Ελληνικά in Moderne Hellen) est un swobod branche ios Hindoeuropay linguistic familia, materbahsa in Hellad, Cypros, Italia (in Calabria ed Salento), Sud Albania ed alya regions iom Balkans, id Kyehrsen Mar caust, Asia Minor ed id Eustmediomar. Hat id longsto documenten historia vasyen Hindeuropay bahsas, samt lytst-ye 3400 yars om scripts. Idso scribsysteme est id Hellen alphabet, quod est neneudmen pon takriban 2800 yars, pre id, Hellen eet scriben med alya systemes kam id Linear B ed id Cypriak syllabar. Tod alphabet gnahsit ex id Ponnim abjad ed buit ep sien roig id base iom Latin, Kirilitsa, Copt, Gothic ed maung alyen scribsystemes.
Id Hellen bahsa xeiht uno meg important place in id historia ios Occidental mund. Inkapus med Homers epsa, id awo Hellen literature includt maung wehrgs os diuturn importance pro id Europay culture. Hellen est idschi bahsa in-yod maungs iom sultexten in science ed philosophia buir tienjien-ye redagen. Idschi Nov Testament ios Christian Bible buit in-kap script in Hellen. Com ia Latin textes ed traditions ios Romanios mund, ia Hellen textes ed societats os Antiquitat skeipe id object iom Classic studyen.
Unte Antiquitat, Hellen eet dalgtos id bahnst lingua-franca ios Mediomar mund. Id vibihsit id official bahsa ios Rhomay Imperium ed antslohnk do Medieval Hellen. In sieno moderne forme, Hellen est id official bahsa om Hellad ed Cypros ed oino iom 24 official bahsas ios Europay Union. Est baht ab lytst-ye 13,5 millions leuden nundiens in Hellad, Cypros, Italia, Schkiperia, Tyrkia ed ia kathire alya lands ios Hellen diaspora.
Hellen raudhs sonti neneudmen pon secules kay cree nov werds in alya bahsas, pati Sambahsa. Hellen ed Latin sont ia predominantsta surces os international scientific werdskaut.
Archayic Hellen[]
Ne woidam quando Hellen (au Pre-Hellen) bahtors gwohm do Awo Hellad ni qualg linguas eent bahta ter prever. Quando prehpt Hellen ye id prest ker in dwoter dwidel ios dwot millennium pre JC, Hellad ed parts ios westripa os Asia Minor ja bahr Hellen. Id ausst preserven Hellen esti scriben in Mykainay, id official dialect ios Mykainay civilisation. Leitti de inscriptions ep loidpianjis ed ceramic vescells trohven ep id insule Crete (khaliban in Knossos) ed ep id dayluk (khaliban in Pylos), semper ex Mykainay royal citads. Ia insular inscriptions kwehke veuter quem ta ex id dayluk, ia veutsta esend ia pianjis ios Woghkyal ex Knossos (circa 1400-1350 pre JC); ia Pylos pianjis tarikhe ex circa 1200 pre JC. Mykainay eet meist-ye gendel ad Arcadic-Cypriak.
Mykainay esti script med un syllabar kalen Linear B, quod buit desciffern in ia 1950tias ab Michael Ventris ed John Chadwick ep id base om prever orbats ab Alice Kober. Buit men antplohct ex id awer Linear A schrift, eet-yod de nudt kay scribe id bahsa ios minoic civilisation bet remanti non-desciffern. Id Linear B syllabar dusdehbht scribe Hellen. Mathmount tik signes representend singule voyels au ghyanen syllabs (consonn-voyel), ne enderkweit inter cort ed long voyels, inter "r" ed "l", ni daydey vocswehner, vocstump ni aspiret plosives. Consonns ye id end om syllabs sont rar-ye script. Wawod pleista textes sont inventars (offerdaftars, mathalan), nies gnohsa de id structure tos dialect est limiten. Lakin, quo hams iti est extreme-ye priy, dat tod dialect est 500 yars veuter quem ia niebst-veutst inscriptions quoskwe longe. Mykainay est klut ob preservevs ia heriten labial-velars ka distinct plosivenserie (transliteret ka "q"), nekam ia serter dialects, ed hat maung inflexions, werds ed phrases trohft sonst-ye tik in ia Homeric epsa.
Id prist ex id pehden ios Mykainay civilisation tiel id ausst prehpen os alphabetic Hellen unte id octim secule pre JC esti traditional-ye kalt ia "Hellen Deusk Tids". Ye tod zaman mers Hellad plaut-ye do beghsgramatia ed stagnation; buit un drastic sehnken os population ed maung refugeitentrehcs, ed un oiniht Hellen civilisationo neti existit. Lakin, lytst-ye oin inscription ex tod prist est gnohn, un sfud inciden in Cypriak syllabar ed takhiren ex circa 1050 pre JC.
Id cultural regionalisme quod inkiep unte ia "Deusk Tids" persistit per maung secules, ed esti suareflect linguistic-ye : id historia os pos-Mykainay Hellen est khaliban id historia idsen local dialects, hatta deub-ye in id Classic Prist (480-323 pre JC). Ne pre id sehkwnd aiwo, id Hellenistic Prist, rebihsit Hellen bo cultural-ye ed linguistic-ye oiniht.
Id prist ab id prehpen iom prest alphabetic inscriptions, unte id aus octim secule pre JC, tiel 480 pre JC est kalen id Archayic Prist. Circum id inkapem tos prest esti shayad kun ia ausst gnohn Hellen literar wehrgs - ia dwo survivevs Hellen epsa, id Iliad ed id Odysseia - niek iro present forme. Id bahsa tom poems, kalt "Epic" (wa Homeric), est un literar mix ex un varietat om different prista. Representend id topp uns long oral-poetic tradition strehcend tsay do ciengow, ta epsa ne buir composen ab oin anghen; is gwehrder "Homer" eet tem apank ed skadhic im awims quem is est pro nos, ed maghiet ses fictice. Buir anter elaboren regional-ye ab generations om beghsgramat poets hina buir viscript maghses circum 700 pre JC. Apart ir status ka dwo iom megst wehrgs os literature aiwo composen in id Hindeuropay-bahndo mund, id Iliad ed id Odysseia sont os supreme importance pro Hindeuropayistens ob kwecto dadwnt inexhaustible-ye sem archayic formes, phrases, ed cxultural material. Sem linguistic wehrtmens in ia epsa tarikhe ex pre id Mykainay tid, ed unte ta sont skedht sem poetic formules heritet ex Oraryo.
Epic est idschi bahsa iom trigimdwo itnamt Homeric hymnen, ielg wehkwnd ein divitat, ed iom wehrgs ios prest Hellen autor quos namo gnohms, Hesiod (sert octim secule pre JC). Sems iom Homeric hymnen mathmoune important awo materialo, bet quanta buir composen meg serter quem ia dwo epsa.
Epic hat ka base id dialecto kalt Yonani, id varietat os Hellen baht in Yonan (khayghian os west Asia Minor), ep id insule Evvia, ed ep ia Cyclades insules ios Agayios. Epic yaschi marthmounit, blans ad Yonani, un substrate om ayoley formes. Ayoley eet un grupp dialecten bahn ep id insule Lesbos ed in ia Hellen daylukareas om Thessalia ed Boiotia. Besonters-ye prominent in sem alyo literature ex id Archayic prist est id Ayoley dialect os Lesbos, kalen Lesbian, in-yod buit script id lyric poesis em rjienbwutsens kam Sappho, Alkayum, ed Stessikher, ex ia septim ed sixto secules pre JC.
Linear B pianjis, (a) ex id Woghkyal, (b) ex id Perigumt ios Norddakhel. Id ideogramme pro "zafaran" est in gehlb.
Classic Hellen[]
Due id cultural ed politic hegemonia brugen ab id Antique Athenas unte id Vt secule pre JC, nu-bihsit Attic, wa id dialect os Athenas, id standard literar bahsa unte id Clasic Prist (480-323 pre JC). Attic eet un prokwem gendel os Yonani, ed bo skeipe un grupp kalen Attic-Yonani. Aus-ye bihsit Attic id bahsa os drame (khaliban un athenay creation), kam representen ab ia tragedias om Ayschylum, Sophokleus ed Euripides, ed ia comedias os Aristophanes. Mox bihsit id nudt proschi prose, af historians kam Thoukydides ed Xenophon, philosophs kam Platon, Aristoteles, Theophrest ed Epikwrum, orators kam Isokrates ed Demosthenes, ed centens alyen autors. Bet id ausst Hellen prose, tod om philosophs kam Herakleitum, eet scriot in Yonani.
Attic-Yonani, ia Ayoley dialects, ed Mykainay eent quanta parts ios Eust Hellen dialectal grupp, includt-yod iaschi non-literar dialects Arcadic-Cypriak (consistend Arcadic, bahn in id central Hellen region Arcadia, ed id prokwem gendel Cypriak, bahn ep id apank insule Cypros, ed bo destull prokwem Mykainay) ed Pamphyl ( ex id sud tyrko ripa; ne un pur Eust Hellen dialect, sontern un curieus blanden ex Arcadic-Cypriak, Ayoley ed Dorwey). Alter grupp est West Hellen, mathmounti-yod dialects bahn daydey suder ed wester quem Eust Hellen: in id Peloponnese (Sparta), ep maung insules ios Sud Agayios, ed in pleist Hellen colonias in Sicilia ed Italia (quois orgwehme sems iom veutst Hellen alphabetic inscriptions). Pleist West Hellen dialects bayghe id grupp kalen Dorwey. Dorwey eet traditional-ye id bahsa os lyric poesis (mustathna Sappho ed alters udwekwnt heruper) ed iom khoralen lyric passagen in drame. Oino iom importantst lyric poets pro Hindeuropay studyes est Pindar, qui rekmehsit ed incorporit maung awo material do sien compositions. Vasya non-literar dialects sont attesten in alphabetic inscriptions ploisko Mykainay ed Cypriak; senter esti scriben in un syllabar deriven ex Linear A.
Quayque Attic bihsit id literar norme ed est id familarst Hellen dialect, alter dialects sont ops importanter pro i Hindeuropayistens, preservent ghi divers kweits qua buir alteren we lusen in Attic.
Id koinê[]
Circum medsu id prest millennium pre JC extens id prestige ios Hellen bahsa trans id synor iom local Hellen civitats. Bo hieb est bohrt ep ia ripas Italias ab xiters yant id VIIIim secule pre JC, quer mox eebungent muhim influence ep i Etruskens ed alya walsk folks. Os hatta meger importance pro id bayga os Hellen buit id weiden os Attic-Yonani circum id Vt secule ka official curtbahsa in Makedonia, un rig norder quem Hellad. Quan id stieure Makedonias oispans unte id quart secule sub Philip II ed eys son Alexander III (iom Megil), Hellen bahsa ed culture spohr in un enorm zone ios gnohnios mundios tos zaman ed creit id Hellenistic mund, quos inkapem esti traditional-ye pagen ye id tarikhe os Alexanders mohrt in 323 pre JC. Unte tod tid, Hellen buit bahn tem sudworts quem Misr ed tem eustworts quem Balkh. Un uniforme ed destull simplifiet forme os bahn Hellen kalen "koinê", pro η κοινη διαλεκτος = "id commun bahsa") pag-se ka medium os communication. Id kih khaliban ep Attic yed samt gwunets ex Yonani ed alya non-Attic elements. Dat id bihsit id standard administrative bahsa, quasi ceter Hellen dialects disparihr, id oin exception esend id Dorwey dialect Laconic (subsistend nundiens ka Tsakonic) .
Id koinê buit nudto tiel circum id regne os Justinian iom Ist in id VIto secule nosters era; est id bahsa iom Septgims ed ios Nov Testament, ed buit nudt ab sem autors kam iom historian Polybium ed iom philosoph Epiktet. Bet pleisti scriptors pos id presto secule reieg protiev id ed rik pur Attic, pati tem familiarens rjienbwutsens kam Plutarch, Galenium, Euclid ed Ptolemayum. Udwekwnen dehlct yaschi bihe Hesychios, un glossator os Alexandria qui compilit un kamus om rar werds shayad unte id Vt secule nosters era. Eys kamus, hatta yando defect, mathmount un kyudost numer om dialectal formes ed om formes ex alya bahsas qua sont tik pau gnohn, ed est os megil wirto pro Hellen dialectologia ed Hindeuropay studyes.
Oyro (circum 120 nosters era) ios kuschan cesar Kanishka is 1st, quos imperium inclus territoria in moderne Pakistan, Afghanistan, Xinjiang ed Nordwest Hind. Est inscriben in Hellen; levter : ΒΑΣΙΛΕΥΣ ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΝ ΚΑΝΗÞΚΟΥ ([oyr] os Kanischka Roy Royen), dexter = ΗΛΙΟΣ = "sol", samt id tamkha os Kanischka. Id "Rabatak inscription" nos mantheiht lakin od Hellen buit forlikwn oika yars serter ka official bahsa pro (Balkhi) aryo, circum 127.
Rhomay Hellen[]
Med id establiement uns dwot Roman imperial curt in Constantinople ye id IV secule trohc id centre ios Roman Imperium do un hellen-bahnd ambient, bilhassa pos id de facto division ios Imperium in 395. Latin remien in-kap id bahsa tem ios curt quem ios askar ed iom official documents, lakin biswohnd ab id Vt secule. Quodkwe bih to, multa latin launwerds penetreer id Hellen bahsa. Ab medsu id VIto secule buir pleist legal textes preter-ye redagen in Hellen ed lyt ed lyt parts ios latin Corpus Iuris Civilis tarjen do Hellen. Sub cesar Heraclius (610-641), acceptit-yos id hellen wanaktitule βασιλεύς, vibihsit Hellen id official bahsa ios Rhomay Imperium.
Id numer iom hellenophones est vohrtto pro circum 600 ka un wassime tridel ios population ios Rhomay Imperium, ed id total em qui ghohde wehkwe in Hellen sollt yed esus mierer. In ia sudeust parts ios Imperium eet id vernacular bahsa bilax Aramay.
Id sud ed id eust ios Imperium bihsit tun in 603-610 occupen ab i parsi Sassanians ed nespekent iro rekrig af Heraclius in 628 invaden ab i Arabs ob id expansion os Islam. In 693, Arab tiey Hellen ka official bahsa in ta krigen territoria.
Ia etileikwend etenregions ios Rhomay Imperium, Asia Minor ed Hellad, eent sammel ia territoria pregenst af Hellen. Zowngschie id popular bahsa, derivet ex id Koinê, enderkwit-se akster-ye ud id lingua im alims, quod protiedier artificial-ye maung formes ex Awo Hellen.
Id skider-ye wiken Anadolu buit penetren yant ab-kap id 11t secule ab i Selchuki Tyrks, qui waurs id hellen bahsaterritorium westworts. Pos id krig om Constantinople (1453), Athenas (1456), Peloponnese (1459/1460) ed ios rig Trapezunta (1461) ab i Ottomans ens id status os Hellen ka Statsbahsa tiel id creation os moderne Hellad in 1832. Ia linguistic formes pon 1453 sont kyusen ka Nov Hellen.
Adamantios Koraês (Smyrna, 1748 / Paris, 1833; hellen : Αδαμάντιος Κοραής, franceois : Adamance Coray) eet un hellen philolog samt deub gnohsa os hellen culture. Buit oino iom importantst representers iom Hellen Lumens ed un pionnier in id publication om wehrgs ex awo hellen literature. Is buit uno moderato defensor ios katharevussa, kay "puwnes" id ex vasya gospoti werds qua ne existeer in id popules bahsa.
Id "katharevussa"[]
In Hellad, diplomatia eet id besoyno iom ambassadors, politicians, scriptors ed Phanariotes. Toy ops administreer id land in id nam iom Ottomans. Ies nud pro id script id archayic hellen ios Orthodoxios kyrk, ed smyohr ia idees iom Lumens de id naudh os eduque sieno nation in id bahsa employt ab id popule. Is phanariote Dimitris Katardzis (1730-1807) buit is prest qui kwenchieusit un talim in vernacular hellen. Pos arkus un awo hellen kohnst pior difficil, is vigwauniesc de rikes Attic Hellen pos vighabus plur variantes os script Hellen tehrbient bihe admiss bi-sabab id extraordinar luxuriance ios baht Hellen. Un prospect os solution gwohm ex iom megst Hellen intellectual tos zaman, Adamantios Koraês (1748-1833). Unte plur yars, so philolog, sammel-ye liek ed mutarjem, kowpit notes ed kwahsit lexical elements ex ia wehrgs om Antiquitat, Mediev ed id nov Hellen zaman, tem quem ex textes ios Bible ed ios oral tradition. Sekwent eys vidpoint, id aw Attic Hellen eet id wekwos ios cler ed ios phanariote aristocratia. Tod "bahsa os tyrannia" ne miegh bihe id expressionsmodus ios popule. Punor, ia dialectal varietats os Hellen kwohk ad Koraês vulgar ed anarchic. Cheusend un "medio via", instaurit un artificial varietat os Hellen quod pit ses sammel aw ed moderne.
In 1827, un franceois-britisch-russian flotte destruxit id ottoman flotte unte id boi os Pylos, ye id sudwest os Peloponnese. Id independence os Hellad buit ratifiet in 1832 ab id vict Ottoman Empire.
Eiskwnd asadhasce ex id ottoman prev, id gouvernement wis in 1834 ka de facto official bahsa id "lingua os Koraês" sub id nam "Katharevussa" (ex "katharo" = "kweiter"). Tod hellen bahsa bihsit oin iom unificationsfactors ios "nov nation kwitern" ud ids tyrk, slav ed schkip elements kowpt unte id ottoman occupation. Lakin, id katharevussa naiwo bihsit popular, idghi ne eet id bahsa nudt ab id popule. Tod na-employit id demotic in sien cadadien, esdi tod lingua eet ambhwaurs ed honnt ab ia autoritats.
Dien 21 Aprile 1967, un grupp om dexter officiers lambh id waldh in Hellen med un coup-d'etat. In 1968, id militar gouvernement reintroduxit id katharevussa ka "official bahsa ios Stat", pati pro talim.
Os hellen origin, Jean Psichari (1854, Odessa, nundiens Ukraine/1929, Paris) parakiep sien studyes in France ed ter carrierit. Ardent defensor os Hellen demotic bahsa, autor ios manifesto-buk Το ταξίδι µου [Mien safer] ed gianter os Ernest Renan, is bihsit un prestrang rjienbwuts os franceois literar gwit. Su-abstohm intervene do Hellen social questions, buit de bayna ti intellectuals engagen politic-ye ab-kap id XIX° secule, besonters in id Dreyfus affaire.
Id demotic[]
In-kap id XXt secule, scriptors, besonters poets, ubstahr contra id neud ios katharevussa quod ieyeer "artificial" ed "mumifiet". Oin im tarafdars ios en-bloc refuse ios "kwitert bahsa" buit is franceois-hellen linguiste Jean Psichari (Γιάννης Ψυχάρης, 1854-1929). Nekam Koraês qui, bi-sabab sien amor ios awios bahsa, brighskwit id moderne lingua proscher awo Hellen, Psichari propos adapte ia launwerds ex awo Hellen do id systeme ios bahn lingua.
Id gouvernement os Konstantinos Karamanlis wid in 1976 id demotic ka "instrument os national wekwos", aun employe id lexis "official" ed ei ijieb un privilegen place in talim ed administration. Nundiens est banen in Hellad redage un official document in katharevussa.
Id hellen alphabet[]
Id inkapem ios prest millennium pre JC vis id adgumt im Ponnims, un folk ex Lubnan bet quod siefer maung westworts ka meg kamyabwenti martajirs. Ir bahsa bieygh id Schemi familia ed eet meg prokwem gendel ad Ibri ed Canaani. Pageer contors unte id hol Mediomar, klutst-yom buit Carthage, ed querkwe gwahr, i brigh ne tik tovars, sontern un meg precieuser item - ir alphabet. Id Hellen alphabet est un adaptation ios Ponnim alphabet, un historic facto quod prehpt sub id nam ios legendarios creator tos alphabet, Cadmos (ex ponnim "qadm" = "eust". Sont plur versions ios aus Hellen alphabet, ed quer ed quan i Hellens uc id ud i Ponnims est controverten.. Ids veutst exempels buir trohven ep Evvia ed Italia, ed tarikhe ex in-kap id VIIIim secule pre JC.
Ia regional Hellen alphabets sont khaliban classifiable do un eust ed un west grupps. Menxu un west alphabet nuden ab Hellen xiters in Italia gohn id Latin alphabet, nu-uperwohnd un forme ios eust alphabet in-pet Hellad, lent-ye supplantend alters ab id Vt secule pre JC.
Kam ia gendel alphabets om moderne Ibri ed Arab, id Ponnim alphabet hieb tik buksteivs pro consonns; id crucial innovation ab i Hellens buit nudes sem buksteivs tik pro voyels. Ia Hellen buksteivs Α Ε Ι Ο Υ ed (in id eust alphabet) H sont adaptations ex Ponnim buksteivs pro consonns qua ne eent present in Hellen. Oin heritet buksteiv, digamma (F), representit {w} ed ne est part ios canonic Hellen alphabet, chunke tod swon buit lusen aus in Attic-Yonani, bet id est commun in inscriptions in alya dialects. Ia senst quar buksteivs ios Hellen alphabet, Φ Χ Ψ Ω, sont additions.