Id uperwaldh iom mars ed oceans revelet akster geopolitic pands, bohnden ibs international conflictualitats ed sibias qua wardhe eni globalisation do un darmo maritimisation. Mars ed oceans sont ghaptu, ne kam marrewsa bifanght ab ia menscensocietats qua keule ed gadabeihnti ia. Sonti strategic rewsa qua cristallise ia actual problemes ed challenges posen ad variat actors kay bilkull gnohe, explore, ruydes, securise, behrde, bewaldhe ed preserve ia. Sem marrewsa sont object om criscen territorialisation ed militarisation endunt ghi economic, logistic, militar au ambiental sonterinteresses.
Iamen marrewsa bihnt bifanghen ab societats samt different ghabens, sonti de id loc ios ischbatios tensionen ois divergent interesses os un synergia em privat ed public actors qua bihnt expressen ye cada maschtab. Leitti tun de kwahe in quod mars ed oceans sonti strategic rewsa eni id quader os globalisation, ob sont surces taunayen gehnend un novo forme os tienxia gouvernance pro un gohder uperwaldh ed posdarilitat.
Id territorialisation iom mars ed oceans[]
Id juridic, economic au symbolic bifangh iom mars ed oceans gehnti marterritoria qua implient prabhil-ye id presence om precis limites. Maghe lakin existe flauter limites correspondend uno netwehrgorganisation kun leitti de territoria os mobilitat au os communitat. Id deilen iom mars keiht ep un delimitation ios bichoun iom margrancen pagen sekwent ia reuls ios Uniet Nations Convention de Marieus. Tod rencauset id diksdoctrine iom Sept Uniet Niterlands pon 1609 menxu id Uniet Eustindisch Compagnie publiceiht Mare Liberum, capitel XII ios buk os Grotius De Indis, quod establiet id dastur os leudher communicationo mari.
Ia marrewsa prehpe kam id sensto strategic hadh os globalisation pre space. Ia efforts kay jamiye ia lands primadhen ab oin sam ocean remanent modeste. Geohistoria deict od i nudtors hant tohrpto delimite id ocean kay se situe, dind i Europays kay bifanghe id mund ed colonise id. Ibs prest oisbehrdens ambh id oceanic triade ios XIXt secule vahnt bihe substituen ia penk oceans recogniht in 1928 ed quom limites buir tracen ab id International Hydrographic Organisation (HIO) kay facilihes maritim transports. Id oceanic nomenclature correspondt id peiten os name ia maraykwsa prolongend-ye ia dayluks. Iklime maps deike engwn ia khayghians id nam om mars pos un landtoponym (Brasilu Mar, Sud China Mar, Hindi Ocean).
Ia international actors qua intervene ep id bichoun iom oceanic grancen sont id UNO (besonters id International Curt os Justice [ICJ]), ia Stats ed id Europay Union quod hat buden siena members in September 2016 uni planen ye horizonto 2021. 168 Stats sont parties ei Montego Bay Uniet Nations Convention de Marieus, China hat ratifiet id, bet ne ia Uniet Stats os America.
In tod dikssohkwo wa dikskrig iom marrewsen est pelgvos id sensto sbehrdtu rewos oiskeipend 55% ios surface ios globe. Margrances ne sont object om bilateral tolks sontern petis om multilateral panegs. Also hat dien 15 Marto 2016 oistars un dwohevd session in New York, samghatend 196 Stats kay lance ia garwis om future reuls de pelgvos quod ne hat sems nundiens. Idsa challenges sont ia sams quem tod ios globaliset ocean chunke id skeipt un kwehlrewos pro tienxia fluxa.
Ia (surface) marzones sekwent id Montego Bay Convention. Id territorial mar est un yeusmen quod oistrehct dalgst-ye tiel 12 marmilia ud ia baselignes uns caustal Stat. Id territorial mar est ayt ka id souverain territorium ios Stat, quayque gospoti (militar ed civil) navs poitte fanzowe "innocent-ye" unte id; tod souverainitat ghehldt kathalika pro id airewos uper ed id marbudmen ender. Id contigu zone est un wedstrei strehcend tiel 24 marmilia dalg ud ia baselignes, unte-yod id caustal Stat poitt bunges un limitet control kay prevene we punihes id violation siens doanen, fiscal, immigration au sanitar ieus. Sam-ye, id Exclusive Economic Zone tik-ye concernt id wed ed idso surface, tiel 200 marmilia dalg ud ia baselignes; ia rects recognihn ter ei caustal Stat betrehve khaliban id protection, id management ed id reuyden ios marmilieu.
Id sbehrden marrewsen, panegalat iom conflicts au affirmationsalat iom nationalismen ?[]
Id recomposition iom margrancen ed id territorialisation iom marsurfacen ed marbund gehne tensions ye iklime scal.
In Sud-Eust Asia sont ia interstatal tensions akster. China ayt Nord Korea ka un taragweidos nieber, Sud Korea ka id allieito iom Uniet Stats, sam-ye quem Japan, Taywan au ia Philippines. China dependti maro pro sien exports ed sien khassiat, energetic, madenn au hydraulic betyeicens. Est perambhen ab lands allieita iom USA ed ne kamt od smulk nations, eni id ASEAN, poitte habe rect ibs sam territorial mutalbas quem id. Kay securise sien betyeicens ed wehse prokwst ia stretts, id mutalbet ia EEZs om siena niebers yeji un "gwodingva" creend-ye pelegvs we pagend do ports.
In Arctid, id deilen iom territoria kwehct impossible. "Mediomar" kern ab continents, tod ocean porct un perigumt kyid tienxia pelgvos unte id Bering strett ed id Norge Mar. Existent territorial mutalbas iom Stats bi-sabab id tahsa ios glehdjbenk ed ia aunstehgens om madenn opnos ed hydrocarbons. Id application ios Montego Bay Marconvention ad Arctid duct ad akster rivalitats. Existent dwo concurrent theorias ios deilen os Arctid :
- ta iom "polar sectors" tribuend ad cada perixihto Stat ein "penkwet" quos ako kneigviet ep id Nordpole, ed quos base esiet id longe ios caustios tos-on land;
- id "norsko theoria" keihnd ep id prabhil unios medyios ligne.
Ta theses ne bespehce id marbudmen quod poitt bihe mutalben tik ye id titule uns longeriht continental schelf, chunke lands hant souverain rects tik tiel 200 marmilia. Trans ta, neid permitt bifanghe ia oceanic rewsa. Russia mutalbet lakin id possession ios pointios lyehgend ender id nordpole ye 4500 m deub sehvs-ye tetro sien flag.
Ye localo scal, ia insules sont ia landstags os marglobalisation ed pands om taunays sontghi un bifanghwassila iom marrewsen. Hant un akster strategic interesse ob id EEZ favorisend id maritimisation iom Stats qua hant sems. China mutalbet historic rects upper ta "perwnts" ob id presence om Chinese peiskers pon id XIIt secule. Also wehst id opposen sienims niebers kam Vietnam ed Taywan de id archipelegv iom Spratly insules ed iom Paracels. Ia mutalbas betrehve implohct marrewsa ed comprindent "nev dascha" ambghehrdend id major part ios Sud China Mar. Diweidti yaschi Japan ia Senkaku insules kaupt ab id Japanese gouvernement in 2012 ed mutalbet ab China ed Taywan. In 2014, un Statsvisite os B.Obama do Japan hat mehmihn China od ia insules eent oistohgen ab id securitatstraiteit homologheihndo ia Uniet Stats defende Japan in fall os attaque, it sringend ids actions ep ia insules. Alyo forme insulenbifanghios quod poitt bihe anacen ei UNO kay obtene id recognition irs EEZ est id mantein uns effective presence. Also biht id franceois insule Clipperton taunayn ab i Mexicans ob sien peiskeries. Ti dehme ir flag lients, menxu id franceois Marine landti ter tik dwis pro yar. Kay sutes ta divergent interesses ed limite pressems, taunays ed conflicts ep marrewsa, sont uno management ed un gouvernance necessar.
Sekwent id Montego Bay convention, id continental diksschelf uns caustal Stat oistrehct ep id marbudmen tiel 200 marmilia dalg ud ia baselignes, bet - kemti divers complicat hissabmethodes - poitt bihe extens tiel 350 marmilia sei id geologic schelf we id varsa sont longer, autah tiel 100 marmilia dalger quem id 2500m dubeligne. Id caustal Stat poitt explore ed ruydes ia ressurces lyehgend ep au eni ids marbudmen. Un Stat quod extendskwt sien continental diksschelf trans 200 marmilia dehlct submitte sien project uni special UN commission.
Ia challenges uns gouvernance iom marrewsen pro securisation[]
Id strategic control iom marrewsen leit per un uperwakht ed un securisation iom routes. Sontschi preadd risken ed un insaf iom naudhs os protege ia bimerct. Different actors bihnt it kyuct : Stats, international institutions, non-gouvernemental organisations ed civs.
Uperwakhe ed securise routes, nodal points ed menscens face terrorisme, marpiratia ed vasyalg trafiques remehmeiht od ia marrewsa sonti tant id sockel os legalo globalisation quem ios antimund. Id salvtat iom mars ed oceans leit per id protection iom navs ed installations. Id werdo de marsecuritat eiskwti tod de gouvernance edghi ids actors. Id antwehrdo tei interrogation dependt id consideren diksquader. Iamen Stats sont souverain uper ir EEZ, pelgvos de skapt cada control. Also, pro marenuperwakht, id EU hat widen un "strategia de marsalvtat" in 2014. 23 caustal lands ed 26 flagstats sonti maimour med un control uper 90 000 km khayghian, aun hissabe id ultramar. Leitti de swekwehre securitat ibs navs, entreprises ed fluxims. Alya operations bihnti duct ab id NATO (Atalante) mathalan pro id protection ios Gulf os Aden ed iom Somali causten. Esdi marpiratia kwehcti global-ye arken in id Hindi Ocean, pon takriban tri yars, piratengrupps remane dar active. Tan id economic ed politic situationo ne esti solwt in Somalia, id risk os resurgence tos menace est pregnant.
Tienxia EEZs in 2009 (map ab id gouvernement os Canada). Ia plautst EEZs (aun Antarctid) sont ta os France, iom USA, om Australia, Russia, ios Uniet Roydem, Indonesia, Canada, Japan ed Nov Zeland.
Uno militarisation iom mars ed oceans, reflect ios hierarchia iom mundial stieures[]
Id numer iom weghiters iom national naval forcen auge in id quader os un spehrd inter marsstieures. Augos gwehmt ex id mar quod biht un strategic rewos.
Ia Uniet Stats, θσλασσοκρατωρ (Strabon), appareihnt ka tienxia prest naval stieure ob id extense irs mundial presence, tem quem ids budget. Biht prispohcen hoyd un redesployment ios US weirflotte kyid Pacific bihnd id nov gravitatscentre om tienxia, economic exchanges. Estschi kay face id augoscrosct ios Chinese weirflotte kam weitwodden ab id importance ios Sud-Eust Asia Traiteit Organisation. Id pelgvosmarine est organisen ambh id US Navy, id Royal Navy ed id franceois National Marine, qua anance un complete set os tienxia projection, dank besonters ir plavbehrs ed projectionsweghiters, tem quem uno netwehrg stehmpointen (Dakar, Djibouti, Abu Dhabi, Nouméa, Papeete). Swekwehrnt quar functions : dissuasion, marwaldh, stieure, projection, presence ed protection pro statans face piratia, terrorisme ed droghentrafique.
Id meist akster crosct iom naval forcen prehpt in Asia. Ia iklime stieures antplehce submarin flottes prokwem ia maritime routes ed ia stretts, quetos id naudh os antplehce imkans os anti-submarnav defense. China hat kuriht in 2012 id plavbehr Liaoning ud Ukraine, dissuasionsweghiter quod ei permitt interdehe uno marrewos uni duschman. China moderniset sieno marine med un dwoter plavbehr levert in 2017 ed construct in id land. Id plavbehr kwehcti ka id "gohdst im ambassadors" kay kyunggiawe naval diplomatia. China stundt protiev id spand ios Vietnamese marine quod eiskwt consolide sien strategic position ed darmasce unte ia rivalitats ambh ia Spratly insules. Also kurihnt Vietnam dec helicopters ennaukim ep fregates, dwodem plavs os maruperwakht, six submarnavs makht in Saint Petersburg.
Un kardwnt interstatal cooperation ghehdt ses un solution per id encommunen om zariyas kay face problemes kam piratia, terrorisme, marcriminalitat au clandestine migrations. Tri marines kwehkent ghehde swekwehre un tienxia force projection : ia Uniet Stats, ia europaya stieures qua sont id Uniet Roydem ed France, tem quem China. Marstieure est it revelator ios place ed ios rang iom Stats.
Maritim securitat, salvtat ed salvguardia sont cadadien elements ios bungos ios stieure iom Stats.
In naranji : demandes om extens continental diksschelfs in 2014. Ia plautst continentalschelfs sont ta om Russia, Canada, Australia, iom USA, os Indonesia, ios Uniet Roydem, om Argentina, Brasilu ed France.
Inter reuyden ed prospection, ia challenges bohndt ibs ressurces[]
Id pressem ep oceanic ressurces crehscti con tienxia demographia, ed ia economic taunays uper ia marrewsa bihnt hamrahn ab conflicts.
Also, ye tienxia maschtab, un continuum os violence bohndt ad akster economic taunays revelet id interesse dia khayxian, mineral au energetic ressurces iom marrewsen bihnd hog-ye strategic rewsen. Peisken est extreme-ye gvaltic ed maght adduce diplomatic tensions. China hat sinct Vietnamese trawlers in 2014 ed 2015 in Sud China Mar quer, in 2001, id hiebit promulget un peiskmoratorium in "siena" marrewsa.
Exist kathalika un geopolitique iom hydrocarbonen fluxen. Tienxia fluxa pro naft ed iklime fluxa pro natural gaso sreunt unte divers, land ed submarin tubes, naftaducts ed gasoducts. Russia ed Tyrkia hant signen in October 2016 un playcto de id Turkstream projecto kay struge un gasoduct sub id Kyehrsen Mar. Gastankers ed nafttankers perwehghent kathalika hydrocarbons ye vasya maschtabs. Ia routes dehlge bihe uperwakhen ed securisen, tem quem ia stretts, ia barzakha. 70% ios Chinese betyeicen transeiht unte ia stretts os Malakka au Sunda ed ta kwehke hog-ye strategic. Pro siena madenn betyeicens, hat China securiset sien iklime bases installend-ye sien companies in Indonesia, in Malaysia, in ia Philippines au in Laos. Africa de est id trit mierst naftiklime tienxia ed swekwehrt 11% ios mundproduction, besonters ambh id Gulf os Guinea. Tensions existe inter Stats (Equatorial Guinea ed Gabon), inter local gouvernements ed international naftcompagnies, inter gouvernements ed populations pro id deilen iom revenuen, betschi inter ia local autoritats, ia teutisk grupps ed ia naftcompagnies eni ia Stats, au inter Stats pro id delimitation iom grancen (Nigeria ed Cameroun). Ia energias sont submitten ad akster pressems ob id industrial crosct iom Sudlands, menxu ta ios Nord ne hant modifiet ir antslehnkensysteme, quo duct ad eiskwens os EEZ extension do od continental schelf.
Ta pressems sontschi ambiental, skoip id explosion ios naftplatforme ios BP gruppios ubgwohmtum in Aprile 2010 in id Gulf os Mexico. Ia economic, social ed ambiental pands sont revelen per id interessendiweiden inter i public ed privat actors tos marrewos. Oindem orbaters ios platform nohc, BP dohlg payghe 61 milliards om dollars chereme tem quem 500 000 dollars os communicationsbudget kay gwinwes sien kleumen. Tourisme, peisken, fauna ed flora sont menacet ab id naftschiau quod kyunggiawt climatic sketha skoip storm Katrina. Ia Mexican populations nademonstrent contra naftreuyden. BP hat dohlgen tyehgve offshore baurmenprojects apo Australia, ed in id Nordmar. B.Obama hieb, in December 2016, kuzdiht vasta zones ios US EEZ kay limite offshore reuyden, bet eyso successor D.Trump duct un witer ambiental siyassa, ed hat mohlden dien 1sto Jun 2017 od ia USA sgwohm ex ia Paris playcts (COP 21).
Un aumwento management iom marressurcen biht ineluctable sei est iskwt ke maro remant id future Terras.
Jean-Michel Jarre - Calypso, Part 2
Protege, preserve mars ed oceans, nov pands uns posdaril antslehnken[]
Ia pollutions tolkeihnti de un plastic ocean bi-sabab ia hydrocarbons qua forme katrankuglas. Quayque ia degasifications bihnti stets minter kathire, ia accidents seuwend naftschiaus hant muhim consequences. Ia hihnsta sectors sonti Nord Atlantic, inter Singapura ed Japan, id Gulf os Pars au prokwem Kaapstad in Sud Africa.
Maritim salvguardia kwehct ses uno major pand. Id preservation besonters ios khayxian inkapti bihe iskwn. Nova formes om reuyden ed production se orientent kyun aumwent peisken ed id antplehcen os marin aquaculture. Id uperleiten est lakin long face ia economic interesses in action. Ia enplacen peiskquotes maghent kwehke ka un solution skoip id moratorium de torskyaghen in Arctid dank id action os Greenpeace quod sib udtolct un playct frehsend ia nevodhpeiskareas ambh id Svalbard archipelegv in ia Barents ed Norge mars dien 25 Mai 2016, autah id minimalo playcto de peiskquotes in id Baltic Mar udtolct ab id EU Commission in October 2016. Ta playcts duce lakin do privatisation iom peiskerien : Id Sea Shepherd NGO ed ids perodhsedd Paul Watson hant ornuwt colossal wassilas do id jidal protie braconerie ed illegal peisken. Id flagnav Ocean Warrior biht yist pro to kay jidale protie ia Japanese kietyaghnavs.
Face climat warmen ed id schrehnken os tienxia glehdjcovehr quod lelusit meis quem 3 millions om km² pon November 2016 binisbat id 1981-2010 mutawassit, ia objectives os posdaril antslehnken pact unte id Marrakech COP 22 orientent-se kyun "Blou Yeusmen Initiative". In Antarctid, id Mar os Ross biht kuzdihno med id creation uns "Protegen Marin Area" deciden dien 28 October 2016. Ia Uniet Stats ed Nov Zeland hant it creet id plautst margordos quer cada preleiven, tem quem peisken, est banen unte 35 yars.
Id salvguardia ios planete ocean interesset idschi civil societat, skoip i whistleblowers au ia civic movments. Seulend-ye id Ocean Nation, Olivier Dubuquoy hat emitten id idee os cree uno nation, orbatend-ye con juristens, chunke nimen hat mutalbet id Ocean ed od id bayght nimen sekwent id Tienxia Declaration ios Ocean (Ocean Nation, 2015). Lit de duce un sensibilisationsaction ed de definihes id commun plor kay ziele ia offshore projects ed sehle id climatboi. Tod association ducti campagnes os civil inkaria de id climat ed id Ocean.
Id protection ed id salvguardia iom marrewsen prehpeihnti nov strategic actors : associations, NGOs, civs, Stats, international institutions kyuken kay swekwehre securisation ed salvtat. Marrewsa sonti strategic rewsa ed id actual major pand keiht in iro preservation.