Stat

Id Stat poitt ses definihn ka un politic communitat quos existence est submitten ei samghat uns elementenfasc : un population, un territorium ed un organiset politic waldh, bungend id souverainitat. Id skeipt sammel un territorial-ye definiht modus os social organisation ed uno menghia om politic institutions, xeihnd id monopol ios edictions ios diksreul tem quem ios silahneud. Id territorium est un geographic extense delimiten med grances ep-yod est buct id souverain waldh os un Stat. Tod extense comprindt un landrewos (swol ed enderghom), un airrewos, ed yando uno marrewos. Id population os un Stat est id mensccomunitat bohndt idsi territorio, submitten ei waldh ed ei inner ieus tos Stat. Se enderkweit ud id nation quod est definihn ab uno mensccommunitat bohndt ab comgwivskwen.

Sammel historic realitat ed theoric construction, id Stat est also un communitat em Individus submitten uni sam politic ed normative waldh. Tod aunsamia ios Stat est recognible in id wekwos "Nation-Stat" au in id personification ios Stat (mathalan, biht tolcto de id engagement os un Stat in un conflict, un sporternu...)

Tehrpt lakin bihe tohrben od id werdo "Stat" est ops nudt kay kyuses tik id politic waldh, med alya werds id politic ed administrative gouvernanto structure, excludend-ye ia criteria om territorialitat ed population. Tod acception ios lexis est nuden kay name ia administrative ed gouvernemental meids. Yed id enderkweiten inter Stat ed administration remant fundamental.

Dwo diksdasturs ghehlde pro id international situation ios Stat : tod os idso souverainitat ed ids corollar, tod idsios diksegalitat con alter Stats. Id souverainitatsdastur hat un double dastur. Ep id statal territorium, souverainitat maynt od id Stat est id saul quod kwehrt loys, swekwehrt id Justice, pregent Monete, leift ed posdehrjt un armee, confert nationalitat. In international ieus, id souverainitat ios Stat maynt id behandt id rect om posdehrje diplomatic relations, conclude traiteits, anances un international mutalba. Pon id conception os souverainitat expresst ab Bodin in 1576 ischbatend id independence ios Stat, tod conception maung seschrohnkit. Lakin, souverainitat remant protect ab dwo types reulen. Hois, international ieus ne ghehldt pro id reserven xeimen ios Stats ed, ciois, id souverainitat iom Stats est protegen ab id jurisdictionsimmunitat quod vergeiht mae un Stat biht admaheln ant ia tribunals alyios Stat. Tod dastur ghehldt pro vasya activitats gwehmend ender Statswaldh au eni id quader uns administrative mission. Id Stat brunct kathalika id dostrictionsimmunitato dayir ia maals ed public funds necessar sienims administrative missions in kharij.

Ijmal ios Peurstdem Monaco (photo ab Diego Delso). Sei excepmos id Vatican (0,44 km²) seddos ios Catholic Kyrkios quod hat un "functional" population, Monaco (official-ye, in Franceois : Principauté de Monaco) est tienxia smulkst independent Stat (takriban 2 km²). Lyehgend ana id Mediomar, est besonters maschour ob sien casino, Grand Prix os Formule 1, oceanographic museium, luxe ed peurstendynastia Grimaldi.

Qua sont ia origins ios Stat ?

Id lexis Stat gwehmt ex latin status, ex id verb stare, idswo ex oraryo *steH2, yani stah. Tod werdo Stat prehpt in Europe ye id end ios XVt secule kay kyuses un forme os politic organisation quod hat antslohnct ab Renaissance in Occidental Europe. Ia civil ed international Weirs agen we kwohnden ab ia Europay monarchias hant ducen do id skeipen ios moderne Stat, quod hat wardhen inter ia XVIt ed XVIIIt secule, besonters ab id concept Statsraison. Philosophic ed politic rjienbwutsi kam Cardinal de Richelieu, Mazarin, Ludvic XIV, Friedrich II os Preussen, Machiavelli, Hobbes hant direct-ye contribuet id formation ios moderne Stat.

Historic-ye, id Stat buit prest-ye un politic construction sult ep Religion. Machiavelli (Il Principe, 1514) hat poskwo seculariset id lexis enderkweitend-ye nett-ye id spiritual autoritat ud id secular autoritat : is hat besonters kyunggiawt od is Peurst hat ka objective nudes sieno magh kay kjiengowihes id Stat, aun od Moralitat condition sien action.

Ye id XVIIt secule, Thomas Hobbes, in id Leviathan (1651), comparit id Nationstat uni "mier artificial corpos". Is iey id union im individus eni un politic corpos ne eet automatic, witerom id aristoteliste conception sekwent el mensc est un "politic animal" (ζώων πολιτικον). Yeji Hobbes, i individus gwivend in id state of nature hant bayad-ye divergent interesses qua bringhe i ad mudam conflige contra mutu; quetos id wekwos sekwent-yod "mensc est mensci wolf". Also, mensci cheusient per interesse tyehgve oin part om ir natural rects oiskeipend-ye se do Stat, kay skape id effrenation iom destructor passions ed garantie it ir securitat. El mensc tyehgviet yinjier poldam oin part siens lure linkwnd-ye id stand os Nature po chuses id social contract. Sekwent Hobbes, id politic waldho dehlct ses institute per contract, quosmed el individu homologht respecte ia wehlens uns wanak quel incarnet ordre-public ed collective vol. Tel wanak se dwinght tik ob el swekwehrt salvtat ad sien subjects, ne ob est prihn.

Ye id XVIIIt secule, Montesquieu hat dind paursken id wassila os limite id stieure im wanaks. In De l'Esprit des lois, is hat suggest establie uno maghenseparation inter legislative, executive ed judicative, quosmed le pouvoir arête le pouvoir. In id forstehlben om eys reflexions, Jean-Jacques Rousseau (Du Contrat social ou Principes du droit politique, 1762) hat explien od dat id individual wesu smyehrt id general interesse ed dat nimen harmskwt seswo, nimen emiet decision contrar ad altern interesse. Is hat kathalika tenten solve id dilemma evoquen af Hobbes dayir id necessary forlinkwen os individualo lure, kyunggiawnd-ye od l'obéissance à la loi qu'on s'est prescrite est la liberté chunke cadanghen cheust leudher-ye fuschioue id. Id legimitat ios Stat ka symbol om magh ed waldh hat yinjier tadrijan wardhen in id druna ios XVIIIt secule, per id recognition os popules souverainitat. Yed tehrpt bihe preciden od id Stat est neid lasim forme os social organization. Ia orbats om Claude Lévi-Strauss ed Pierre Clastres (La Société contre l'Etat, 1974) besonters, hant diken od societats ghohd perfect-ye wehrge aun Stat. Mathalan, Pierre Clastres explicit od, in sem primitive societats, is teution bug neid politic dwinghend magh.

Idghi modern Stat gnahsit ex un gwayt solidereihskwnd imtihan ed souverainitat kay resiste ia extos aggressions ios territorium. Id consolidation ios moderne Europay Stat hat yinjier lit unte un diweiden face ia local ed regional maghs ios feudal Europe. Bilax, Africa ed Asia buir dominet ab mier stable ed pau menacet imperia (Ottoman Empire, Imperium iom megil Murhouls in Hind au "Guingkwok" in China).

Ia antique theses (Platon in πολιτεία au Aristoteles in πολιτικά) buir questionen ye id kloder iom nov realitats ios moderne Stat. Seighi, traditional-ye, monarchia eet definihn kam id magh es oin, aristocratia ka id magh unios minoritat influenten civs (άριστοι, "i gohdsti"), democratia ka id magh ios popule (δήμος), senter hat oistus protie sien practic realisation, naudhend uno muzlim civennumer. Ies mentors ios XVIIIt secule hant yinjier-ye profunderiht id notion ed ia possible modalitats ios representation ios popules ed im civs, tem quem ia concepts om national ed popules souverainitats. Sekwent id theoria ios national souverainitat, ige representers ios nation comdefineihnt id national interesse ed id general vol, quetos id loy dehlct surces yeji id 1789 Declaration iom rects al mensc ed civ (buit-yod plaut-ye inspiret ab tod theoria). Bilax, sekwent id theoria ios popules souverainitat antplohct ab Jean-Jacques Rousseau per id contrat social, cada civ dehlct smyehre kathalika id bungos ios souverainitat chunke, per id social contracto quod samghat wiswens civs kay gehne id politic corpos, el hat accepten alnos kam ceters od ia decision ios souverain popule al bihnt dostrigen.

Id notion os popules souverainitat hat plaut-ye inspiren i jacobins. Sekwos id Franceois Revolution, i gouverneits buir tadrijan assocyen ibs public decisions, esdi id universal suffrage, clar-ye postulet ab id notion os national souverainitat, hat tohrben maung wakt pre se dwinghes definitive-ye. Id Industrial Revolution hat kathalika contribuen impones id Nationstat ka essential actor ios politic gwit ed iom international relations. Samt id crehscend unification iom national Mercats, id enplacen om railvia netwehrgs, id spand os economic, besonters industrial, Production, id moderne Stat hat inkapto behande muhim ressurces kay swekwehre sieno national cohesion ed sien influence ye international nivell, ye id detriment iom micri Stats ios Italian peninsule au hatta iom plurinational imperia kam tos im Habsburgs, tos im tsars, au ios Ottoman Empire, nient-ya survive Mund Weir Oin. Eti, ab id end ios XVIIt secule, ia "national" bahsas se stets meis dwinghent ka Culture bahsas, ye id detriment iom local bahmens, imdadhen ab id crehscend penetration ios druckt bukios quod diffundt homogener linguistic usages. Eti, id Stat encouraget enscolen, factor unios mierer cultural homogeneitat sienen nationals.

Li Zhanshu, perodhsedd ios Standic Comitee ios Chinese Popules Congress, lehct in un symposium in Peking, dien 27 Aprile 2018. Id Popules Respublic China est tienxia befolctsto Stat, tem quem oino iom awsten. Quayque i Chineses bahnt different bahsas (pleista ex id sam linguistic familia), quanti maghe lises ia sam textes, dank ia khanji ideogrammes. Esdi tod scribsysteme naudht long yars Talim, id ne buit tayn ab id latin alphabetic Pinyin, quod ghehdt transcribe sammel tik oin bahsa.

Biht id Stat rencausen ?

Tolke de rencausen ios Stat est un antiphon chunke idswo ne hat oistopt evolve unte ia secules. Unte id XIXt secule hieb tyohcen id triumph ios regalia "Policiste-Stat", bohrn ab liberal aspirations. Mathalan, Adam Smith, in sien wehrg The Wealth of Nations (1776) critiquit id economic interventionisme ios Stat quos rol is viensch limite ye id brungos ios invisible hand quod reult ia mercats. Id Stato dohlg, sekwent iom, focuse ep sien regalian bungsa : imtizan, Justice, defense ios territorium...

Pos Mund Weir Dwo, id figure ios Walfert-Stat vaht bilax antslehnke ed taye id "Policiste-Stat" ab ia economic analyses os John Maynard Keynes (The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money, 1936). Id Stat vaht it intervene deub do economic ed social gwit : id biht protector, planer, entrepreneur, manager. Tod vision ios Stat bihsiet dind rencauset unte ia 1980tias per id reiken iom liberal theorias, qua ghehde iter do magh (mathalan con Margaret Thatcher au Ronald Reagan).

Actual-ye, id notion os Stat, in sieno maynen os organisationsquader ios politic ed social gwit, esiet in crise, idghi Stat habiet forlikwt oin part om siena maghs alyims influenter actors. Id model ios Walfert-Stat neti esiet relevant, quayque ia-pet wehlpens vis-à-vis ia Statsinterventions remane important. Tibs difficultats addeihnt-se un crise os civstand.

Refugeits ex Sudan paurske desperat-ye sem jlampohn ex un quasi tursto dener os Jamam, Sud Sudan (photo ab Jared Ferrie). Sud Sudan est tienxia yunsto Stat, member iom Uniet Nations. Ob aunstop combats in id suder part siens territorium, Sudan hieb viacceptet id independence tos deil in 2011. Lakin, id situation ne se hat kayjint, dat ia combats nadure bo in ed norder quem Sud Sudan, yoitkwe tod biht nun ayn un "deuysus Stat".

Quod est civstand ?

Civstand est un diksstatus quod daht sieni xihtor id imkan os participe id civic ed politic gwit os un societat, per id bungos om rects ed id parkwehren om obligations. Civstand est traditional-ye bohndt ad nationalitat, elghi civ xeiht un part os politic souverainitat med sien voterect.

Civstand swehdt gehne civic rects ed dohlgs, pagen ab id normative systeme ios Stat. Tod status biht poskwo buct ab el individu sekwent els leudher vol, ed yeji sien education, sien studies ed id cultural, social ed politic context eni-yod el act. In democratic systemes, egalitat ed id existence om rects assocyen ad civstand seult id social ed politic diemen. I civs os uno samo nation skeipe un politic communitat. Also, id notion civstand est intim-ye bohnden ad democratia ed se enderkweit net-ye ud id notion os nationalitat (yani "weiker uns land") wawod id confert politic rects ed dohlgs. In un rousseauiste prospect, cada civ xeiht oin part ios politic souverainitat, quo legitimet elso smyehren in id election elsen gouvernants.

In tod sense, civstand est un essential component ios identitat ed ios social existence al individu. Id communitat im civs vaht skipes id nation. Id bungos ios civstand skeipt yinjier id manifestation uns vol os comgwive. Lakin, id traditional vision os politic civstand hat tadrijan plauterascto do alya categorias os "civstand", samt id risk os diluve ids maynen. Bihtghi tolken nundiens de "europay", "tienxia" civ, de "multicultural" civ.

Awo Hellad hat gohnen moderne civstando med id invention ios hellen citad wa πόλις. Tod vision ios politic Citad est gwaukan-ye elitist : sclavs, gwens, gospotis ne poiss accedde civstand. Api, in tod vision, civstand id gwit ios citad conditiont id participation in id gwit ios citad (bestehmen iom legs, administration iom public res, participation in ia debats ios agora...). Todmen conception os civstand ghehdt yinjier wehrge tik med uno muzlim numer em anghens chunke leit de un directo democratia, keihnd ep un egalitat im civs bet reservet im favorisen members ios citad. Id de roman civstand hieb un universal vocation (ghyant ibs gospotis) ed eet definihno med dikswerden, iom civis romanus behandend civil ed personal rects.

MedievI, ia notions om subject ed vassal supplante tod os civ, quod reappareihsiet ab id XVIt secule ed bilhassa ye id XVIIt secule in ia wehrgs os politic philosophia focusen ep Statsconstitution ed ia bungosmodus ios politic magh (Machiavelli, Bodin, Locke, Hobbes, Rousseau...).

Ies classic mentors os democratia - Montesquieu in De l'esprit des lois (1748) au Tocqueville in De la démocratie en Amérique (1835 et 1840) - hant iskwn demonstre id superioritat ios representative prabhil, kyunggiawnd-ye ia dangers ios directios democratia (heterogene societats dominen ab affect, besonters id passion os egalitat) : in tod proschgumt, el elect ed id reprsentative amt kwehkent ka lasim ambacts inter id figure ios souverain popule ed ia naudhs ios menscengouvernen. Id distinction inter imperative ed representative amts constateiht to. In tod conception os civstand, un representer est ne tik un karug, sontern unschi gawoun ios general vol. El ne est limitabund sien interventions ibs kaurs em sien voters sontern dehlct, bilax, se strehnge ad promove general interesse, pati, sei necessar, contra sien voters.

Id presse service os Vladimir Putin, president os tienxia plautsto Stat, Russia, ops dadwt photos qua skaunt id walsieune, id prokwtato dia nature ed (orthodox) Religion tem quem id neroti ios rays. Her, so, vehsend ne meis quem un cruce-belchug epter sien xiongbu, swehnct un pisk is hat just yaghen ex un sudsibirsk rivier.

Kwe exist un crise ios representation ?

In France, idmen preeminence ios representative amt remant decisive; id de neud os referendum est rar ed limiten. Alya lands, instar Schweiz, Italia ed au sem federata Stats iom Uniet Stats os America, hant exmohnen diversifieter zariyas om expression ed consultation med activer formes os participation im civs per petitions au legs os popules initiative.

Ex un classic "elitiste" representative logique al "advocat" representer, mediatisation hat favoriset id perigumtodo un logique ios identification, ios prokwtat, ios incarnation : menxu id traditional notion os representative amt induxit, per sien elitist kweit, un hierarchisation inter representers ed amtsxitors, id notion hierarchia buit fundamental-ye renquestionen (crise iom institutions, contestation iom autoritatssurcen, augen os individualisme), besonters in id politic camp. Also, besonters in parlamentar democratias, id distance ud id magh biht dusbohr ed el representer biht legitim sienims voters tik sei els personal kweits bringhe el bilkull proscher el "mutawassit" voter siens dem. El representer biht un person qual anghen dehlct ghehde se identifie meist bilkull. Tod orientationschange binisbat id classic vision al civ hat expliet id sigh os George W. Bush, qui hieb dict un extercommun imkan ad kwehke kam is mutawassit US-American par excellence (akster religiositat, pau interesse pro intellectual res, pritor om baseball ed tackel football, amend ruralitat; id New York Times hieb hissaben is president hiebit spenden takriban id quardel siens "orbatswakt" in sien ranch os Crawford).

Daydey, politic engagement, hatta id mer participation iom scrutins, ops neti sont kwaht ka ia privilegen vias om bungos ed promotion iom rects, sontern ka uno mer possibilitat os expression, tem "natural" quem trivial. Nundiens in ia USA, civs poitte vote electronic-ye in postamts, supermercats ed chuses quodlibt moment.