Etymologia: Ex awo hellen τραγωδία, compost ex τράγος ("bock") ed ωδή ("songv") quod kyeust id chante accompagnend id maul ios bock ad Dionys, unte religieusa ceremonias qua siemmel id hol citad in Awo Hellad. Id moderne zaman hat gwupt ex tod religieus ordimension tik id iser terror isnahn ab id tragic action.
Definition: Id tragedia est un theatral jor sayct "serieus", in quod el heroy biht confronten ad forces qua ineluctable-ye, el uperwehndsient ye id end ios piece.
Id καθαρσις[]
Ielg yar, ia hellen citads ee-organise tragic ernus : Platon (427-347 pre JC) sigwrt od meis quem 30 000 anghens ghohd prispehce ia. Id hol citado dik ter sien unitat; id parwarisch im pauper civs eent swekwohrn ab id koim ed hatta mutawoiks eent admiss do ia ceremonias. Menxu Platon propont in Περὶ πολιτείας chasse i poets ed besonters i tragic poets ex id perfecto Citad, Aristoteles (384-322 pre JC) ijapt un place ei tragic in sien philosophia.
Eys wehrg Πέρι της Ποιητικής propont tod definition del tragic heroy : "semis menscis quell, aun ses incomparable-ye virtuteus ed prabh, viwehst in bieda, ne ob sien eakias ni peighert, sontern ob sem rhalt." (XIII). Ambigu person bestohmen ad bieda, el tragic heroy nos inspiret sammel baysa - ob el ne est kafi innocent pro siamos idignat ab vide el sehnke - ed mildet - elghi ne est kafi vinovat kay ghawdmos de. Isnahnd it baysa ed mildet, id tragic spectacle dehlct suwes in nos, nabahsit Aristoteles, un kweitereihsa (in hellen : καθαρσις ud ta dwo passions.
Kam tolke tod καθαρσις ? Kwe zaruri ei dahe un ethic sense ed sigwre, mathalan, id skau iom daunost consequencen iom passions nos ilajt ud ta ? Weti, kam mehnt Lessing (1729-1781), od ia passions sont arcta prabhmeid-ye kun ibs un adequat satisfaction biht mohghen ? Kwe zaruri, kemti id origin ios werd καθαρσις, insiste id medical kweitu ios kweitereihsa ud ia passions ? Neter mer-ye ethic, ni mer-ye medical, id concept καθαρσις est pre quant esthetic. Startend ex id prabhil od spreuvmos plaisure med id imitation (μιμησις) os quo nos est muschkil in id realitat, Aristoteles vidt in id tragic spectacle id waurmen uns -imaginar- transposition tom dwo muschkil passions qua sont baysa ed mildert, ed yinjier id loc uns esthetic leudhereihsa.
PLeist arguments iom tragedias sont launen ex ia mythsa, besonters ex id historia om balstohmen familias : i Atrides ed Labdekides (Oedipus, Antigone...), experti de cruoric maurdhs ed monstrueus agsa - kam eddihes un pater eys wi purts... Id khiterst (aunmeidia, tragic ύβρις) biht exhibihn ed denden : ia agsa qua taraghe id aurdhen ios mund au pretende udlitihes el Individu ia limites ios human. Tragedia ghi eiskwt, per id skau ios conflict inter exceptional sesens ed forces qua udleitent ia (meinyun, divs), un ontologic werd : quod est ses unis mensc ?
Sophokleus (Awo Hellen : Σοφοκλῆς, circum -497/-405) est oino iom tri awen Hellen tragedians quom pieces hant survivet. Eys prest pieces buir oiscript serter quem ya Ayschylios, ed auser au samtid-ye quem ta os Euripides. Sophokleuso scripsit 120 pieces unte sien gwit, bet tik sept hant integral-ye survivet : Αἴας, Ἀντιγόνη, Τραχίνιαι, Οἰδίπους Τύραννος, Ἠλέκτρα, Φιλοκτήτης ed Οἰδίπους ἐπὶ Κολωνῷ. Unte quasi 50 yars, Sophokleus buit is meist-ye celebren dramaturg unte ia dramatic ernus ios civitat Athenas qua muss unte ia religieus festivals Lenaia ed Dionysia. Is oispohrd in 30 ernus, sohl 18, ed naiwo riengit ghemer quem dwot place. Ayschylo sohl 14 ernus, ed buit yando marloubihn ab Sophokleus, menxu Euripides sohl 5 ernus.
Antique skau[]
Aristoteles defineiht tragedia ka uno μιμησις ("imitation") quod diweidt id ποιησις ("action os kwehre"), kam id skau daht ab persons in action diweidt id narn, wi ad epos. Ies actors, quanti ners, tri bi Sophkleus - iom protagoniste agend id principal rol, bo alters comagend alter rols -, vohs masks, qua dieugheer ka vocbehrs, ed quom colors, formes eent symbolic deikens. Ia robes eent sumptuous, ia cotherns (uperalen ed hoglacen schous) ee-contribuent id hieratic, akster-ye styliset gestural im persons, adequat pro mime "hogkweitu" action. Ies actors eetrehcent ep id προσκήνιον, angh takhta kneigvend ep un rudimentaro treb. Id actorrewos uperkihsit ithan unte oik meters id ορχήστρα, circule delimitet ab ia hemicycle-udlyigen stieupbenks qua skeipe id amphitheatre. Ter wohrg id khor, ops nihn ab iom coryphayo.
Iaghi hellen tragedias oistructurent-se ambh id alternance inter ia parts agen ab iens actors, composen ex regular stiches, ed ia lyric schtuks, samt complexe metrique, sohngvt ed danst ab id khor. It biht act un genos os dialogos inter id mythos perkipen ab iens actors ed id citad quod interroget id. Is critiquer W.Nestle (1865-1959) hat dicto quosmed, in tragedia, id mythos biht smautern, interrogen, commenten ab id khor, ambact im civs.
Tragedia eiskwt id werdo de politeia ed besonters, dar meis quem id werd ios bungos os menscenJustice, tod ios place id citad might ijabe ibs individual beurts. It eiskwt id Οιδιπους τύραννος os Sophokleus id werd ios danger skipt ab iom "tyrann" - sekwent id hellen maynen ios lexis, yani iom duc id citad sib hat chosen, un roy legitimet ab eys megil klewos, ed ne ab eys dynastia. Isghi tyrann dreibht con se, do sien pehden, id citad : sei i Divs balstehme iom, tun biht Thebes plagen af haysa. Sophokleus, skaund-ye id mythos, duct un zanbiu os democratia.
Ayschylios universe, prect ab id compenetration om human ed divin, est diwidt ab Sophkleusios mund in quod el mensc acceddt swognohsa, vertat ed megdos tik recogneihnd-ye id divin abandon, sien wi dereliction. Euripides (circum 480-406 pre JC) creet un tragic quod nos est familiarer : tod ios inner au exter conflict, un tragic ios protest quos is roman Seneca (circum -4 / 65 pos JC), expert de πάθος, ed pos iom Shakespeare (1564-1616) ed id elisabethan drame buir i hereds.
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Id raunstehgen tos jor in France[]
Id tragic jor buit raunstohgen in France ab id humaniste generation, dank besonters id releisen ios Ars Poetica os Horace (65-8 pre JC). Franceois tragedia gweupt ex id antique model id vol os oiskaue id confrontation al mensces con quo el khact uperwaldhe.
Ye id XVIt secule, tragedia est bilhassa uno maarifi jor, riche med sentences ed moral maxims quom memorisation est faciliht ab id alexandrin. Est besonters udwekwntu Les Juives os Garnier quer id tragic se sublimet do id messianic intizar, quer id force os meinyun hat emen id nam os "Providence". Ia humaniste tragedias, ex Jodelle do Garnier, hieb preservet id existence ios khor quer ies classics ye id sehkwnd secule, Corneille ed Racine, sient myehrse tiel ia senst biblic tragedias os Racine, Esther (1689) ed Athalie (1691), scriben sekwent id prehgen ias meg zakir Madame de Maintenon.
Pierre Corneille gnaht in 1606, in Rouen, in un familia ios bourgeoisie de robe. Is est is veutst ex six purts (eys yuner brater, Thomas, isschi sessiet un kluto dramaturg). Studyet bi iens Jesuits dind id ieus. Dwo offices os advocate ios roy ei permitte gwive modeste-ye.
Eys literar carriere est meteoric. Yant 1629, is gnoht maung success med sien comedia Mélite, agen ab id trupp os Montdory, futuro trupp ios Marais. Pos id triumph os Le Cid (1637), eys pater biht noblihn ab iom roy. Bet id cheid suwen ab tod tragicomedia bringht Richelieu ad intervenihes id meg recent Académie Française kay judce id piece. Corneille zascript unte tri yars. In 1640, skaut Horace, id prest om sien roman tragedias. Elegen do id Académie Française in 1647, is deilt sien wakt inter Rouen ed Paris, quer is pact definitive-ye in 1662. Is oiscript meis quem dwodem pieces unte dwodem yars. Pos id deuysen os Pertharite (1652), is tyehgvt Theatre ed se consecret ei stichentarjem ios De Imitatione Christi, ed ei edition sienen dramatic wehrgs. Kay satisfice ia debses ed unitats, Corneille modifiet - yando muhim-ye - sien yuwentwehrgs. Is reict theatre in 1659 med Oedipe. Quayque is dar-ye script dec tragedias, eys klewos biht eclipset ab tod ios yun Racine. Eyso senst piece, Suréna, est un deuysen. Id diversitat (covehrt vasya jors ploisko pastoral) ed id amplor os eys wehrgs (meis quem trigim pieces), eys constant kaur de innovation (udnoven ed invention pluren jors), beuwent Corneille iom megsto dramaturg ios XVIIt secule.
Id tragic Grand Siècle[]
Id XVIIt secule vidt in France id triumph os tragedia. Pro Le Cid (1637), Corneille hesitet albatt inter ia appellations "tragicomedia" au "tragedia", ob sammel is remant prokwem barroco inspiration - ob id stieure ios romanlik, id movwentkweitu ios action, hatta id espaniolisme ios intrigo -, ed ob eyso sense ios tragic biht nuancet ab un fid in el mensc, un druv politic optimisme quod ei bant id daunost fin wi ei tragic jor.
In Le Cid - kam in Cinna ou la clémence d'Auguste (1642) -, id noroct end est due id intervention ios Peurst, kaurndios de reconcilye ia individualiste wirts os aristocratia ed id royal augos : Corneille script unte un troublet periode, tod ios Fronde. Id exaltation iom aserngwirts, tom-pet qua permitte ad Rodrigo se udkwehre, se sublime, dostighes id megdos quod eys "race" ei promitt ed ad bihe is Cid, beuwt id corneillesk tragic un forme os "heroyisation" : ia nert atmens bihnt qua sont, tyeicend id unitat iom ses, apparihes ed kwehre. Also se sacrifient certain rjienbwutsi pro iro religieus ideal, kam is martyr Polyeucte in id samnam piece (1643), we kwehnde id gvolic yed exaltant experience ios noroct udleiten ios tragic dilemma (id confrontation os liubh ad dohlg), fals conflict wawod liubho bi Corneille est bohnden ad kehnsen ed admiration : Jimena ne sagviet liubhes un Rodrigo aun "kerd", yani aun courage.
Yed, id cornelian tragic ne est tik optimiste. In Horace (1640), is heroy aunstehct quo poitt ses kalen id orbalstehmen, quod beuwt cada mensc un sunu os Cain, un maurdher es elso swesgen. Horace (Soratyos), chusen ka champion ab Rome in weiro protiev Alba, nu skeulend wighes do nehc sien prient, sien quasi-brater Kerswrntium, credeihsiet tik rlinji-ye tyehgve id privat part os sien ses : eysa swester Camilla, ei dwinghend-ye nices iam, spreuveihsiet iom id biaur os nedecos. Herkye est quo sessiet id tragic motif ios Grand Siècle : un pessimiste proschgumt, besonters sub id janseniste influence, ios Christian dogme ios orsynt.
Racines universe behemt tod obsession ios khitert inherent ei menscencondition, tod force destrugend ia passions, quod ghehdt suwes un "furor" au tragic "follia" - kam tod os Orestes in Andromaque (1667). El racinesk heroy est ops confrontet sieni wi monstruositat, ed cheust lever-se ei - kam Nero in Britannicus (1669) au Phèdre (1677).
Id racinesk tragedia hat, ye tod zaman, biht id tragic model. Boileau (1636-1711) exaltet id classic rigor os ids composition, ids conception : respect os debses, reul iom tri unitats (wakt, loc ed action). Yed esiet neprabh aye id "simplicitat", ni hatta id tragic barekweit ka id racinesk vertat. Id stieure iom passions qua fanghe i racinesk "monsters" khact nehse samt pior debses. Kad id force iom racinesk tragedias gwehmt ex od un barroco annem iswehrt sub id rigor ios composition, ed entret tension con id : id infernal machine est implacable, bet est controlen ab semo nenamim, uno "ne-woidim-quod".
Britannicus de Jean Racine
Decline ed udnoven os tragedia in France[]
Tragedia, aundwoi brighen do id hogst perfection ka jor ab Racine, dadwt mox in France ne meis quem rhayr-kimatih wehrgs au quom bayghen tos jor est dubious. Id end ios Grand Siècle vidt triumphe Theatre ka spectacle. Voltaires tragedias ye id sehkwnd secule sont pau convincend : id burgese drame au serieus comedia bihsient ia jors qua expremsient ia interrogations tos zaman, ed sehkwsiet id romantic drame, sub shakespearesk influence ye id XIXt secule.
Ye id XXt secule, Claudel, sammel epic ed lyric dramaturg, hat script inclassable pieces, qua hant elements ex bo shakespearesk drame ed antic tragedia (Tête d'Or, 1890; La Ville, 1893). Unte ed pos Mund Weir Dwo, sem scriptors gairn-ye redage pieces quom subjects sont launt ex antique historia ed ghehde clanghihes questions qua, sub id Nazi Occupation, sont chald : bihtu mohnen de id meg controverten Antigone (1944) os Anouilh au de les Mouches os Sartre. Ta sont lakin-ye meis-ye sem pieces qua interroge id tragic jor quem sempet tragedias.
Id tragic spirit, ye un elangver weidos, sessiet retrohven bi Cocteau in la Machine Infernale (1934), ed, bilhassa, ter ye kyehrsen ed acut weidos, bi Beckett qui, med En attendant Godot (1953) ed Fin de Partie (1956), enscenet figures os decheeno menscgenos, confronten ei absurditat unios menscencondition quod neti hat sense ni ziel, quod skehpt mohrt, id fin au un degraden image ios divin : un God bihn Godot. Tragedia emt tun ia accents os metaphysic farce.
"Fin de partie" Samuel Beckett
Awo tragic ed modern tragic sekwent Kierkegaard[]
In Enten - Eller (1843), Kierkegaard consecret un capitel ei sibia inter id "awo tragic" ed id "modern tragic". Id essential difference, sekwent iom, concernt id buhsa ios tragic paytten. Kun Antigone, in Sophokleusios tragedia, decidt infranges id ban os begrabhe sien brater, ays act est un echo ios fat os ays pater Oedipus, id senst consequence ios fatalitat quod persehkwt un familia plagen ab id furor im divs. Tod fatalitat est pro Antigone, kam id air ia annemt in, un immutable datum. Naiwo vimehnt ia de idso scandalous kweit : ma to wakyet tik mi ? Alnos different est is person Hamlet in Shakespeares piece. Is suspect id crime sienias mater, is gnoht dwoi ed angst. Antigone gwivt in kados, Hamlet in gvol.
Sekwent id theoria os Kierkegaard de ia "stadia ios existence" (esthetic, ethic, religieuso stadia), awo tragic est prokwer id esthetic stadium : Antigones tragic kados est un immediat ed actual datum. Moderne tragic gwehmt proscher id ethic stadium med sien reflexion de id rhalt, sien interiorisation de vinovatia.
Yed, kweter awum au moderne, tragic remant piern ud quo Kierkegaard kalt id "religieuso stadium". In Ἰφιγένεια ἡ ἐν Αὐλίδι os Euripides, Agamemnon est un tragic heroy : eys decision os maule eys dugter Iphigenie est object uns inner conflict, quer drehde mutu explicit motivations (paterliubh, furkan ios citad, fuschiou dia i divs). Bet kun, in id Bible (Genesis/In-Kap, XXII), Elohims wehlt Abraham sacrifie eys son Isaac, contra quodkwe explicit motivation, id silent taatia os Abraham iom beuwt un "ritter ios fid", ne un tragic heroy. (Frygt og Bæven, 1843).
Also, id tragic sekwent Kierkegaard est dar bohndt ad wekwos ed argumentation : neghi in id wehrg ios dansk philosoph se nodet id conflict inter tragic ed raison.
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Gnahsa ed regnahsa os tragedia sekwent Nietzsche[]
Tod conflict vaht eme sien plen sense bi Nietzsche (1844-1900), kam un exacerbet forme os quo is namt "id druv antithese" : id opposition inter ia gwits qua affirment, klewosdehnt ed exaltent gwit, ed qua negent, calumnyent ed quasi-sudyent gwit. Nietzche repert un systematic gvaskayn os gwit, un druve-ye jishace "vertatsvol" in id hol rationalism ois Socrates (469-399 pre JC), yani in id major part os Occidents philosophia, Metaphysique ed science. Tragedia incarnet sekwent iom id extreme witermenos : est id "supreme art in id approbation os gwit". Id prest wehrg publiet ab Nietzsche hat ka titule Die Geburt der Tragödie aus dem Geiste der Musik (1872). Id tragic biht ter submitten uni double chehxen. Nietsche preter descript el tragic heroy ka unem menscem quel spehct seid do id essence iom jects, aunstehct id absurd ed id horrible qua id existence ananct, ed quell spreuft un fatal disgust ob to. Tun intervent art, kam un salvor magician : transmutend-ye horror ed absurditato do bell kips, id salvt nos ex disgust ed possibleiht gwit. Also ghabmos ma hellen tragedia dehlct bihe placet sub id double kyeuken om Dionys ed Apollon : hois, iom div om medvia ed katel extase; ciois, iom div om drehm ed sunder, suten ed serene formes. Tod theoria beuwt tragedia un art os "metaphysic consolation". Albatta, Nietzsche reject id aristoteliste conception uns kweitereihsa ex ia passions, yed is manteint, in tod prest buk, id dayi uns "rhayireihsa" ios tragic mathmoun in tragedia.
Id evolution os eys men vaht duce iom ad renege id notion consolation. Is siet sigwre ne est zaruri justifie ni salve gwit pro id khitert id mathmouniet. Dalg ud naudhe consolation, id tragic est id aunstehgen od gwit est innocent, od id bihsa, con sieno menghia destructionen, est innocent, od id horrible ed id absurd sont innocent, od to hol est wirtic os bihe affirmet vessel-ye ed aun kulct eiskwen. Is oin emblematic divitat est tun Dionys, div ios sigwren trans quodkwe wan os consolation. Nietzsche maynt poitte seswo kwites ka "presto tragic philosoph", eti prophet uns regnahsa os tragedia : "Promitto id gumt uns tragic zaman." (Ecce Homo, 1888).